Anglo-Frisian Mythology
The pre-Christian beliefs of the Anglo-Frisian peoples were part of the broader Germanic mythological tradition, though with distinctive regional variations and practices.
While written sources for Anglo-Frisian paganism are limited and often filtered through Christian perspectives, archaeological evidence, place names, and comparative analysis with other Germanic traditions help reconstruct aspects of these belief systems.
Key Deities
Woden/Wodan
The continental Germanic Wodan or Anglo-Saxon Woden (cognate with Norse Odin) was a principal deity associated with wisdom, poetry, death, and magic. Many Anglo-Saxon royal genealogies traced their lineage to Woden, reflecting his importance in elite culture.
In England, his name survives in place names and in "Wednesday" (Woden's day). Archaeological evidence suggests his cult was significant, with possible ritual sites identified at various locations.
Thunor/Thunaer
The thundergod known as Thunor in Old English and Thunaer in Old Frisian (cognate with Norse Thor) was associated with thunder, lightning, storms, strength, and protection. His symbol was the hammer, and he was especially popular among common people and farmers.
His name survives in "Thursday" (Thor's day) and in various place names across Anglo-Saxon England and Frisia.
Tiw/Tiu
Tiw (Old English) or Tiu (related continental form) was a god associated with warfare, justice, and the sky. He is cognate with Norse Tyr, and both descend from an earlier Proto-Germanic sky deity *Tiwaz.
Evidence for his worship includes his name in "Tuesday" (Tiw's day) and possibly in place names. His importance seems to have declined by the Migration Period, though he remained significant in warrior culture.
Ingui Frea/Ing
Ingui (also called Ing or Frea in various sources) was particularly significant to the Ingvaeonic peoples, including the Anglo-Frisians. He was associated with fertility, prosperity, and peace. The name "Ingvaeones" itself suggests these peoples considered themselves descendants or followers of Ing.
The Old English Rune Poem mentions "Ing was first seen by men among the East-Danes," suggesting connections to royal lineages and fertility cult origins.
Eostre/Ostara
Known primarily from Bede's mention of Ēosturmōnaþ (April) being named after a goddess Eostre, this deity remains somewhat mysterious. She was likely associated with spring, dawn, and fertility.
While evidence for her actual worship is limited, her name survives in "Easter," as Christian missionaries adapted the pagan spring festival name for the Christian holiday.
Nerthus
Tacitus describes a goddess Nerthus worshipped by seven tribes including the Angles, describing her as "Mother Earth" whose sacred cart was processed through communities bringing peace and prosperity.
Archaeological evidence from Denmark and northern Germany includes bog deposits and ceremonial wagons that may relate to this cult, suggesting rituals similar to those Tacitus described continued from the Roman Iron Age into the Migration Period.
Core Concepts
Wyrd
Wyrd (Old English) or Werd (Old Frisian) represented the concept of fate or personal destiny. It was conceived not as simple predestination but as a complex weaving of past actions and present circumstances that shape future outcomes.
The concept appears prominently in Anglo-Saxon literature such as Beowulf, where the hero declares "Wyrd often spares the undoomed man when his courage endures." This reflects a worldview where fate operated alongside personal agency.
Blót
Blót refers to sacrifice and associated ritualized feasting. These ceremonies involved offering food, drink, and occasionally animals to deities and ancestors, followed by communal consumption of the feast.
Archaeological evidence for blót practices includes ritual deposits in bogs, lakes, and wells, as well as feasting halls identified at various Anglo-Saxon sites. These rituals would typically follow the agricultural calendar, with major blóts at harvest time and midwinter.
Symbel
Symbel was a ritualized drinking ceremony of great social and religious significance. During a symbel, participants would make formal boasts, vows, and speeches while sharing ceremonial drinking vessels.
The ceremony reinforced social bonds, allowed for the transmission of cultural memory through storytelling, and created a sanctified context for oath-making. The Anglo-Saxon poem Beowulf contains detailed descriptions of symbel ceremonies in the great hall Heorot.
Wēoh and Hearh
Wēoh (idol or shrine) and hearh (sacred grove or temple) were terms for sacred spaces in Anglo-Saxon paganism. These could range from natural features like groves, springs, and hills to human-made structures and carved images.
Place name evidence across England preserves these terms, indicating locations of former pagan worship sites. Early Christian laws and penitentials specifically forbade worship at such locations, suggesting their continued importance even after conversion.
Ēse and Metod
Ēse (Old English "gods") and Metod ("measurer," a term for a creator deity) represent concepts of divinity in Anglo-Saxon tradition. These terms appear in early poetry and reflect theological concepts that were later adapted during Christianization.
The concept of Metod as a measuring or allotting deity connects to ideas of fate and cosmic order, while the plural ēse indicates the polytheistic nature of pre-Christian Anglo-Saxon religion.
Ancestor Veneration
The cult of ancestors was an important aspect of Anglo-Frisian religious practice. Burial mounds, grave goods, and funerary rituals all point to continued relationships with the deceased.
Archaeological evidence includes elaborate ship burials like Sutton Hoo in England, as well as more common burial practices. Literary evidence suggests ancestors were thought to remain present in some form, influencing the fortunes of their descendants.
Supernatural Beings
Elves (Ælfe/Alven)
In Anglo-Saxon and Frisian belief, elves (ælfe in Old English, alven in Frisian dialects) were powerful supernatural beings associated with illness, magic, and liminal spaces. They were sometimes connected to ancestral spirits but were a distinct category of being.
Evidence for elf beliefs includes Old English medical texts containing remedies against "elf-shot" (illness attributed to elves) and charms to counter their influence. Place names containing "elf" elements suggest locations associated with these beings.
Unlike their later portrayal in post-medieval folklore, early Germanic elves were not diminutive but powerful and potentially dangerous entities requiring respect and propitiation.
Ettins (Eotenas)
Ettins (eotenas in Old English) were giant-like beings associated with ancient ruins, wilderness, and primordial forces. In Beowulf, Grendel and his mother are described as being of the "eoten-kin," suggesting their giant-like or monstrous nature.
These beings were often portrayed as antagonistic to humans and gods alike, representing chaotic or untamed forces. They were sometimes associated with ancient structures or landscape features, like the "work of giants" (enta geweorc) mentioned in Anglo-Saxon poetry to describe Roman ruins.
Similar concepts existed in Frisian folklore, with various types of mythological giants associated with prehistoric monuments and natural features.
Dwarfs (Dweorgas)
Dwarfs (dweorgas in Old English) were associated with craftsmanship, earth, and sometimes illness. They were described as skilled smiths and craftsmen living underground.
Evidence for dwarf beliefs is found in medical texts, where they are associated with certain ailments, and in later folklore. Archaeological finds of exquisitely crafted metalwork were sometimes attributed to dwarfish skill in later tradition.
Water Beings
Given the coastal nature of Anglo-Frisian settlements, water spirits played an important role in folk belief. These included:
- Nicor - Water monsters mentioned in Beowulf and other sources, lurking in lakes and fens
- Merewif - "Mere-wife" or water woman, similar to later concepts of mermaids
- Wæterælfen - "Water-elves" associated with rivers and pools
Archaeological finds of weapons and valuables in rivers, lakes, and bogs may represent offerings to these water beings. The perilous nature of seafaring and living in low-lying coastal areas likely reinforced beliefs in powerful water spirits requiring propitiation.
Archaeological Evidence
Sacred Sites
Archaeological evidence for Anglo-Frisian religious practices includes:
- Temple Sites - Structures identified as possible temples at locations like Yeavering (Northumbria) and Uppåkra (Scania)
- Sacred Groves - Identified through place name evidence and historical accounts
- Bog Deposits - Ritual offerings found in wetlands across the North Sea region
- Burial Mounds - Including ship burials and other elaborate internments indicating complex afterlife beliefs
Ritual Objects
Material culture associated with religious practices includes:
- Amulets and Talismans - Including Thor's hammer pendants, bracteates with mythological imagery, and various protective symbols
- Ritual Vessels - Elaborate drinking horns and ceremonial containers for symbel and blót rituals
- Carved Figures - Rare wooden or metal representations of deities and mythological scenes
- Runic Inscriptions - Some with magical or religious significance